What is the Purpose of Assessment?
Assessment is the means by which we evaluate the effectiveness of our teaching and of the curriculum we are using. Assessment also provides us with the means to determine what our students are learning, what skills they are developing and how their attitudes and behaviors are changing. We should use a wide variety of assessment tools to determine how well we are meeting our learning objectives.
Assessment provides us with information:
Information for Teachers
How well am I reaching my instructional objectives?
What have my students learned well?
What are they having trouble with?
Are my objectives valid, or do I need to make some changes?
Information for Students.
What are my strengths and weaknesses?
Am I learning what I am expected to learn?
How can I improve?
Information for Parents
How is my child progressing?
What can I do to help him/her?
What is my child learning?
Information for Selection
Is this child ready for the GT program?
Should this child be moved into accelerated math?
Does this child need remedial reading help?
Assessment is also used to motivate students to do their best work. Some students are highly motivated to do well on paper-pencil tests, but students more frequently get excited about doing well for the three P’s
• Performances
• Projects
• Portfolios
Writing Instructional Objectives
An instructional objective is a statement that defines what we want our students to know or be able to do at the end of an instructional unit. Instructional objectives help us plan instructional activities and to design assessment activities that are aligned with our objectives.
Parts of a Behavioral Objectives Statement
(Slavin, page 455)
Performance
Condition
Criterion
What should the learner be able to do?
Under what conditions should the learner be able to do it?
How well must it be done? What will you accept as proof that this skill has
been mastered?
Examples
Performance
Condition
Criterion
Identify the major organelles found in an animal cell
(Knowledge)
Given a clear diagram of an animal cell
The student will correctly identify 8 of the 10 organelles we have studied.
Express and defend a clear opinion about Christopher Columbus’s character.
(Evaluation)
In a take-home essay exam
Each statement of opinion must be supported with a valid example and examples
must be drawn from Columbus’s personal and professional roles.
Build the following shapes:
4” X 4” cube
5” X 2” X 3” rectangular prism
(Application)
Given a set of one-inch square blocks
The student will correctly build both models
Don’t get so caught up in your instructional objectives that you fail
to consider your students’ interests and aptitudes. Why not let your students
help to write their own objectives?
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy
Using a taxonomy of learning objectives is a useful way to clarify what your
want your students to know or be able to do. Bloom’s taxonomy is frequently
used for writing instructional objectives, but you can use other models as well.
If you choose to use Bloom’s taxonomy, you might want to add an affective
category (how will my students feel about the material, their capabilities,
learning, etc. after instruction).
Taxonomy Levels
(Slavin, pages 462-463)
We can ask students to:
We can assess using:
Knowledge
(recalling information)
memorize, define, list, identify, recall, locate, name, label etc.
Matching, fill-in-the-blank, T/F, label diagram, short answer.
Comprehension
(translating, interpreting, or extrapolating information)
classify, estimate, interpret, infer, predict, translate, explain, generalize,
convert, discuss, paraphrase
Context-dependent items, performance assessment, multiple choice, essay, sometimes
T/F and short answer.
Application
(using principles of abstractions to solve novel or real-life problems)
Solve, explain, construct, demonstrate, illustrate, teach, apply, chart, contribute
Journal, performance, teaching, demonstration, project, context-dependent item,
essay, sometimes mc.
Analysis
(breaking down complex information or ideas into simpler parts to understand
how the parts relate or are organized)
Contrast, deduce, categorize, summarize, analyze, order, classify, investigate,
diagram, distinguish
Essay, context-dependent, performance assessment (ask student to produce a report,
graph, chart, diagram, list, plan, chart), sometimes mc.
Synthesis
(creation of something that did not exist before)
Create, write, design, formulate, imagine, compose, combine, invent, produce
Reports, projects or performances (film, games, stories, web pages, books, demonstrations,
inventions, artifacts, advertisements
Evaluation
(judging something against a given standard)
Appraise, judge, conclude, defend, decide, grade, dispute, rate, discuss, choose,
assess, verify
Essay, journal, performance (panel discussion, report investigation, editorial,
mock trial, response paper)
Affective (Not Bloom)
(attitude change about a subject or abilities)
Write, explain, discuss, rate, choose, evaluate, judge, decide (evaluation of
self)
Essay, journal or learning log, observation, rating scales, performance or projects
Accommodating Learning Styles
Adapted from materials written by Lois Bobo
As you plan ways to assess student learning, don’t forget that your student have a wide range of strengths and challenges. Vary your assessment techniques so that everyone has a chance to show what they have learned.
3 Types of Learners
(Adapted from Frender, 1990)
Visual
Auditory
Kinesthetic
• Mind sometimes wanders during verbal activities
• Organized in approach to tasks
• Likes to read
• Is usually a good speller
• Memorizes best by seeing graphics and pictures
• Finds verbal instructions
difficult
• Talks to self
• Easily distracted
• Has difficulty with written instructions.
• Likes to be read to
• Memorizes by steps in a sequence
• Enjoys listening
activities
• In motion most of the time
• Reading is not a priority
• Poor speller
• Likes to solve problems by physically walking through them.
• Enjoys handling objects
• Enjoys doing activities.
General Guidelines
1) Present instructions
both visually and verbally.
2) Use visual cues (illustrations, graphs, etc.) where possible.
3) Make sure reading difficulty is not an impediment to completing the test.
4) Allow students to stretch and move if the test is long.
5) Do not grade on spelling or handwriting (unless that is what is being assessed).
6) Provide for many different types of assessment (see below).
Methods of Assessment
Adapted from materials written by Lois Bobo
Use a wide variety of assessment and evaluation techniques
Portfolio Assessment
• Determine the purpose of the portfolio.
• Decide how pieces will be selected for inclusion.
• Decide how it will be evaluated.
• Decide how it should be organized.
• Hold conferences during creation and after completion.
Conferences and Interviews
Plan conferences to set goals, evaluate progress and discuss concerns. Let students
take the lead as often as possible.
• Student—Teacher
• Student—Student (Peer Mentoring)
• Student—Parent—Teacher
• Learning or Project Groups
Performance Assessment
• In-Class Demonstration of Skill
• Presentations & Exhibitions
• Written Reports or Documents
• Online Presentations
• Video-Taped Presentations
Learning Logs and Journals
• Daily or weekly journal entries
• Tracking the progress of projects
• Reflections about learning experiences
• Audio taped recordings and photographs
Projects
• Include options for all of the multiple intelligences.
• Keep copies or pictures of projects in a class notebook.
• Make grading expectations explicit.
• Give meaningful feedback
Metacognative Reflection
Invite students to think about their own learning:
• What were you expected to do?
• What did you do particularly well?
• What additional help could you have used from the teacher?
Observations
• Observe students reading, writing, computing, problems solving, constructing,
acting, talking, sharing, classifying, listening, playing, building, painting,
drawing, conversing, etc.
• Write notes and take pictures that can be shared with parents and students.
Paper-Pencil Tests
• True/False
• Matching
• Short Answer/Fill-in-the-Blank
• Multiple Choice
• Context-Dependent
• Short Essay/Essay
• Problem Solving
Example of a Portfolio
A primary grade integrated unit on spiders written by Lois Bobo.
Table of Contents
1. Letter to My Parents
2. Book Review of Charlotte’s Web
3. Mind Map of Spiders
4. Water Color Painting of Spiders
5. Tape of Me Reading a Poem About Spiders
6. My Original Short Story (First and Final Drafts)
7. Spider Rap Song
8. Science Report on Arachnids
9. Pictures of Our Group Project on Spiders.
10. Reflection on My Portfolio
Examples of Performances
Assessment
When students share their accomplishments with a real audience, motivation to
produce quality products is high. Following are some ideas for performances
and exhibitions your students might get excited about participating in. Just
remember, when you allow students to plan and manage events themselves, they
work harder and learn more.
1) Video Presentations. Invite students to plan, write, film and edit video
presentations and share them with parents or other students at a “black
tie” film festival.
2) Science Fairs. (Don’t save them for school or district competitions.)
Try an autumn “Exploration” fair, a winter “Research Round-up”
a Spring “Invention Convention,” etc.
3) Plays. Invite students to write and perform plays that support their learning
objectives.
4) Talent Shows. Include a broad range of talent categories and create a talent
festival night where talents are displayed or performed. Remember, competition
minimizes participation, so make this a celebration instead of a contest.
5) Social Science Fairs. Set up displays of world, country or state reports,
create an artifact museum, have each student pose as an historical figure and
interact as that person, etc. Invite parents or schoolmates to come.
6) Poetry and Literature Readings. Invite parents, serve refreshments and enjoy
each others’ creative works.
7) Online Events. Invite students to create Web Sites, Hypercard Stacks, Webquests,
or other media that can be shared online.
8) Literary Magazine or Newspaper. Let students practice their writing skill
by creating a weekly, monthly or quarterly publication for parents or the school
community.
9) News Program. Let you students research, write and produce a news program
or investigative show, then broadcast it on a local cable channel.)
10) Teaching Experience. Invite students to prepare and present lessons for
younger children, peers or parents. Consider letting them run a museum, a science
lab, etc.
General Guidelines
• Provide students
with choices in the selection of their topic or activity. Be creative
• Model or show examples of previous performances (video tapes, pictures,
documents, etc.).
• Brainstorm criteria that make a good performance (create a rubric for
students to follow).
• Invite students to come up with their own performance and exhibition
ideas.
Another Example of Performance Assessment
Performance assessment can also be a simple activity in which students demonstrate their understanding of a concept. For example, if you are studying circuits, invite students to actually create circuits using batteries, bulbs and wire. Although performance assessment can happen in a closed, testing situation, the following activity is an example of an assessment activity that can be started at school, but must be taken home to complete.
Make a Quadrant and Measure Latitude
1. Cut out the quadrant
pattern (attached).
2. Glue the pattern to a foam core or cardboard backing (cut the same size and
shape as the pattern).
3. Punch a hole through the star at the corner of the quadrant.
4. Place a brass brad in the hole.
5. Tie a 1 foot string behind the brad head.
6. Tie a paper clip to the end of the string.
Use the quadrant to measure our present latitude. Follow the directions below:
1. Wait for a clear night,
then enlist the help of a family member.
2. Locate the north star. Use a constellation map or the following instructions:
A) Locate the seven stars of the Big Dipper.
B) Locate the two stars on the cup of the Big Dipper that are furthest away
from the handle.
C) Those two stars point directly at the bright North Star. (The North Star
is also the last star in the handle of the Little Dipper.
3. Hold up the quadrant and point the starred corner of the quadrant at the
north star (the 90 degree mark should be at the top of the scale).
4. Sight the star along the top edge, letting the string hang down across the
scale at the bottom.
5. Have someone else mark the point where the string intersects the latitude
scale.
6. Record the latitude you measured.
...........................................................................................................................................................
Return this portion to school as soon as you have measured our latitude.
Name_____________________________________
Latitude Measurement__________________________
Parent Signature______________________________
Example of Project Ideas
Projects are a great way to promote student learning. Always provide students
with choices and the opportunity to exercise their creativity. The following
project choices were given to a group of 5th-graders during a unit on early
exploration and navigation.
Dear Student,
For the past two weeks we have been studying 15th century exploration, navigation and life at sea. At this time, you should begin work on your second project for the term. Talk with me or your parents and come up with some ideas for your project. If you need any special materials that I can’t provide for you, bring those materials to school on Friday. Remember, you can invent any project you want, as long as you have it approved. I have included a list of ideas in case you need a little help.
1. Build a model of a caravel.
2. Prepare a Portuguese or East Indian dish for the class. Be sure to tell us
what spices your used.
3. Keep a journal from the perspective of a navigator lost at sea.
4. Write a poem or song about life aboard a ship of exploration.
5. Write limericks about Prince Henry.
6. Write a piece of music that captures what early sailors might have felt on
an ocean voyage.
7. Paint or draw a picture of a caravel, barca or nao.
8. Create a website or collage about Renaissance art or science (see supplement).
9. Create or draw a 15th century costume.
10. Make a map of western Europe and Africa and chart the paths of Henry’s
explorations.
11. Make a travel brochure to convince someone to accompany an explorers on
a voyage of discovery. Include diagrams or maps.
11. Research some of the discoveries that made exploration and navigation easier
between 1000 AD and 1500 AD.
13 Report on the life of a 15th century sailor at sea, including details about
such things as food, work, recreation, worship, disease, death, and waste disposal.
14. Build a compass (see supplement).
15. Study and reproduce a 15th century navigational chart.
16. Learn several different ways of projecting a round earth onto a flat piece
of paper.
17. Make a conical or cylindrical projection of the globe (see supplement).
18. Create a colorful globe with lines of latitude and longitude (see supplement).
19. Learn to play an instrument of the Renaissance.
20. Study a famous artist, inventor or scientist from the Renaissance and create
a brief report.
21. Prepare a sailor’s meal (see supplement).
22. Learn more about dead reckoning and demonstrate the technique for the class.
This project is due ____________
Example of Observation Notes
Consider keeping an observation journal for each child in your class. Whenever something of note happens to a child, jot an entry in his or her journal. Keep a polaroid camera handy so that you can document interesting or revealing moments for your students and their parents. You might even appoint a classroom photographer to take pictures for you.
You can address the parents, the student, or both in the journal, or you can record entries in third person. Save negative observations for private conversations. Keep journal entries positive, but sincere, since each journal will undoubtedly become a valued keepsake for years to come.
Meagan Tanner—Fall Term, 1998
September 18
Meagan is very polite and a little reserved in class. I need to make an effort
to draw her into class discussion more. She was working on her water color art
project today and became so deeply involved that she didn’t go out to
recess. She seems to enjoy most creative endeavors.
September 31
I invited Meagan to share her fall leaf story with the class today. She has
painted some beautiful illustrations and her written work is clever and original.
The other kids responded well (clapping, scattered comments, “that was
really good!”) and I observed Meagan smiling to herself over the next
hour or so.
October 3
I noticed today that Meagan has spontaneously befriended Cassie, a special needs
child in our class who has cerebral palsy. Most of the kids are kind to Cassie,
but Meagan spent almost all of station time with her today. She wheeled her
from activity to activity, talked with her and brought whatever she needed to
complete her work. She even helped Cassie write a story at Composition Corner.
October 4
Meagan helped Cassie again today and Lisa joined them. I took this picture at
the art center so that you can see how nicely they work together.
(Polaroid Picture Attached Here)
October 28
We went on our Pumpkin Patch field trip today. When it was time to pick pumpkins,
Meagan helped three other children find theirs before she chose one for herself.
I was so proud of her generosity!
True/False
Matching
Short Answer/Fill-in-the-Blank
Multiple Choice
Context-Dependent
Short Essay/Essay
Problem Solving
One of the most serious
problems of evaluation is the fact that a primary means of assessment—the
test itself—is often severely flawed or misused.
—J.R. Hills (1991)
Objective Assessment
Multiple choice, matching, short answer, true/false , context-dependent, short
essay test items.
Advantages
Disadvantages
A well-developed objective test:
• can evaluate skills quickly and efficiently.
• can prevent students from “writing around” the answer.
• can prevent students’ grades from being influenced by writing,
spelling, grammar and neatness.
• can be easily analyzed.
• prevents biased grading.
• can be used for diagnosis or pretesting.
• can be given to large groups.
A poorly written objective test:
• requires mostly recall of facts.
• does not allow students to practice their writing skills.
• requires a disproportionate amount of reading, penalizing poor readers.
• can be ambiguous and confusing.
• can be very time-consuming to construct.
• promotes guessing.
• is often used year after year, despite changes in instruction or student
needs.
General Guidelines
for Writing Test Items
1) State each item as clearly as possible.
a. Be precise. Avoid vague
or ambiguous words.
b. Avoid complex or awkward word arrangements.
c. Exclude nonfunctional words or phrases.
2) Avoid including any extraneous clues to the correct response.
A variety of shorter assessments
are infinitely better than one long, heavily weighted exam.
Guidelines for Testing Young Children
Adapted from materials written by Craig Hart
Objective test are not a good means of assessing learning in children before third grade for the following reasons:
• Children 8 and younger develop at vastly different and unpredictable rates. Objective tests tell us little about their abilities or potentials.
• Many children have not yet developed the reading and comprehension skills that would allow them to understand paper-pencil tests.
• Young children do not understand the purpose of formal testing.
• Young children will perform differently on any given day, depending on their level of anxiety or interest.
• A child’s sense of self-efficacy can be unnecessarily damaged by a poor score.
• Test scores may reveal more about the child’s test-taking skills than content area knowledge.
• Testing takes away time from more productive learning activities.
• Alternative assessments, such as portfolios, performance assessment and observation, are more informative and valid.
If you must use objective tests with children under age eight, please consider the following guidelines:
1) Introduce pencil-paper
tests slowly. Start with a few very simple items.
2) Never require reading to complete the test. Read instructions aloud to children.
3) Use picture items whenever possible.
4) Do not require written responses. Simple multiple choice, matching or short
answer items (with options provided) are best.
5) Evaluate responses closely for flaws in the test or lack of understanding
on the part of the student (children are naturally divergent thinkers).
Test Blueprints
Have you ever come away from an exam saying “That test wasn’t fair. It didn’t even test the stuff that I studied or that we talked about in class!”
A test blueprint is used to make sure that your instructional content matches your assessment questions and methods. Suppose, for example, that you want your social studies students to know the general chronology of historical events, but you are more concerned that they understand why events occurred and that they be able to empathize with historical figures, make judgements about their actions, analyze and learn from historical conflicts and apply what they learn to their own lives. Would it make any sense to test them primarily on dates and other kinds of factual items?
When you create a test blueprint, even before you begin teaching, you can use it to guide your instruction, to remind yourself what is most important to teach. If you have new insights along the way, or if your students want to take your instruction in a slightly different direction, you can always add or delete items that match your revised objectives!
General Guidelines for Creating a Test Blueprint
1) List instructional objective
in the furthest column to the left.
2) List the levels of understand or skill you want your want your students to
achieve across the top (Bloom’s taxonomy works well, although you may
want to add an “affective” category).
3) Plan test items that span a broad range of objectives and taxonomy levels.
4) Make certain that the content you emphasized in class is emphasized in the
test.
5) Make sure that response time planned for questions reflects the relative
importance of the question (for example, if you want to measure factual recall
of a few dates, but you don’t consider then to be extremely important,
use simple fill-in-the-blank items or create a matching exercise that will quickly
test knowledge of all of the dates.
6) Make sure that the number of points you assign to each item reflect the relative
importance of the item. (Do not make a true/false question about a trivial matter
worth as many points as a short essay question about an important learning objective.)
Example of a Test Blueprint
Chapter/Unit
Knowledge
Comprehension/Analysis
Application/
Synthesis
Evaluation
Total
Vikings
History of US 13
Readings & Discussion
1
1
2 (3.7%)
Marco Polo
Readings & Discussion
1
2
3 (5.6%)
The Crusades
Readings & Discussion
2
1
3 (5.6%)
Gutenberg
His of US 14/ Field Trip
1
2
One 2 point essay
3 (5.6%)
Portuguese Exploration
Prince Henry , King John Dias, da Gama, Cabral
Amerigo Vespucci
His. of US 14/Readings
8
3
2
2
One 2 point essay
15 ( 27.8%)
Voyages of Columbus
History of US 15-18 Movie, Novel , Discussion
4
4
5
One 2 point essay
One 3 point essay
8
One 3 point essay
One 6 point essay
21(38.9%)
General Navigation
3
4
Using Navigation Tools
7(12.9%)
Total Number of Questions
17 (31.5%)
14 (25.9%)
13 (24.1%)
10 (18.5%)
54 points
(100 %)
Checklist for Teacher-Made
Tests
Adapted from materials written by Lois Bobo
1) I made a test blueprint and matched test items to learning objectives.
2) I made sure that I am testing more than just factual recall.
3) I provided clear instructions for each section of the test.
4) I used a variety of question types (matching, fill-in-the-blank, essay, etc.).
5) I grouped question types together (i.e. all multiple choice together).
6) I arranged items from simple to complex.
7) I assigned point values to each section (except for lower grades.)
8) I typed questions neatly and left enough room for answers.
9) I made certain the reading level is not too difficult.
10) I included tasks for visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners.
11) I provided students with some choices (i.e. essay vs. visual organizer).
12) I made allowances for students with special needs (see next page).
13) I listed my grading criteria on the test (older children only).
14) I tested the test using both students and other teacher, then I revised.
15) I have allowed enough time to finish the test or will provide extra time
if needed, except when time is a criteria of the task.
Considerations
for Special Needs Students
from Kaye Burke, How to Assess Authentic Learning
1) Read instructions orally
and rephrase instructions if needed.
2) Asks students to repeat directions to make sure they understand.
3) Monitor carefully to make sure everyone understands instructions.
4) Provide alternative evaluations—oral tests, use of tapes, test in another
room, dictation, etc.
5) Make sure written instructions are easily understood.
6) Give examples (oral and written) of each type of question.
7) Use white paper.
8) Do not crowd or clutter the test.
9) Give choices.
10) Go from concrete (or simple) to abstract (or complex).
11) Don’t deduct for spelling or grammar on tests that aren’t related.
12) Occasionally use take home tests.
13) Provide manipulative experiences whenever possible.
14) Allow students to use notes and textbooks during some tests.
15) Allow students to write down key math or science formulas.
16) Include visual organizers on tests.
17) Allow students to correct mistakes and/or retake tests to improve scores
and understand what they didn’t understand on the first test.
Guidelines for
Writing Context-Dependent Items
Adapted from guidelines written by Dr. Richard Sudweeks
1. Create a display that
is relevant, novel and interesting to the students.
2. Construct test items that require students to reason using their knowledge
and understanding of the subject by analyzing, interpreting, evaluating, and/or
drawing inferences from the information in the display.
3. Follow the guidelines for writing quality test items.
4. Design the page layout so that the students will understand how the display
and the test items are related.
5. Write instructions that clearly state what student’s are expected to
do.
6. Define the criteria which will be used to evaluate student responses.
7. Ask another teacher or test expert to review the exercise in terms of:
a) How well the task and content match learning objective.
b) The accuracy, completeness and relevance of the scoring data.
8. Revise the exercise as needed.
9. Ask several students to try the items and provide feedback
10. Make further refinements.
Example of a Context-Dependent
Item
The following item was created for a 8th grade test on the voyages of Columbus.
Study the map on the facing page. The lines with dates below them trace the
four voyages of Columbus. The Equator and the Line of Demarcation are also marked.
Use this map to help you answer the questions on this page.
Circle the letter next to the best answer in questions 1-3. (1 point each.)
1) On which of the four voyages did Columbus find what he believed to be the “Garden of Eden?”
A. 1492
B. 1498
C. 1502
2) On his final voyage, (in 1502), why did Columbus sail to so many different ports and take a route that was so indirect?
A. Columbus had ordered
the natives of several islands, and those along the coast of Central America,
to collect gold for him. He was on a mission to collect that gold for Spain.
B Columbus and his men were trying to evade the new Governor’s military
fleet, which was attempting to take Columbus back to Spain to prison.
C. Columbus continued to look for a passage to the Indian Ocean until his ships
became infested with shipworms and he was forced to find safe harbor in Jamaica.
3) What is the significance of the sketch of Columbus thinking about Japan at the bottom of the page?
A. Japan is the modern
name for Cibola—the land that Columbus believed he had reached.
B. Now that Columbus had completed his voyages to America, he dreamt of embarking
on a final voyage to Japan.
C. Once Columbus realized that he had discovered a new continent, he dreamt
of finding a passage through that continent to reach Japan.
Write a short essay answer (2-3 sentences) for question 4. (2 points possible.)
4) On his 3rd voyage, Columbus sailed a course that held to about the 5th parallel north. If he had sailed along the 10th parallel south instead, and had kept going until he reached land, would he have been able to claim the first land he sighted for Spain? Why or Why not?
No, he would not have been able to claim the first land he sighted for Spain. He would have run into South America at a point that was east of the Line of Demarcation. According to the 1493 treaty between Spain and Portugal, any lands east of this line belonged to Portugal. (Treaty date is not necessary. 1 point for the correct answer. 1 point for the correct reason).
More Examples of Context-Dependent Items
Carefully read the following passages about Vasco da Gama. They are from two different books:
Explorers Who Got Lost
by D. Dreher.
“At Malindi, da Gama obtained a pilot to guide him on the final part of
his journey.”
“Vasco da Gama proved to be an excellent ambassador for Portugal! Before he left, he persuaded Calicut’s king to trade directly with Portugal.”
Around the World in a Hundred
Years by J. Fritz.
“. . .Vasco da Gama had his ways. And they were cruel. . . .He captured
a servant of the local sheik and held him hostage. . .at last a pilot was found.”
“[Vasco da Gama] would eventually destroy Arab trade in the Indian Ocean.”
“In India, he . . . left a trail of fear behind.”
Assessment Item:
Write a short essay (2
to 4 sentences) about at least two possible reasons that Dreher and Fritz wrote
about da Gama in such different ways. Use complete sentences.
(3 points)
Full credit if the student provides two of the following reasons or comes up with plausible reason of their own.
1) The authors used different
sources for their research.
2) One of the authors didn’t have complete or accurate information.
3) The authors have conflicting opinions about the morality or value of da Gama’s
expedition
4) One author chose to focus on the positive outcomes of da Gama’s voyage,
the other, the negative.
5) Any other plausible answer the student gives, as long as they recognize the
“fallibility of the author.”
Subtract a point if sentences
are chronically incomplete.
Examples of items for kinesthetic learners
Draw a simple sketch of a Quadrant and explain how it works. (2 points.)
Drawing
(It would be more valuable to ask students to complete
an activity actually using a quadrant so that they can
demonstrate their understanding. See the
performance assessment section earlier in the packet.)
Explanation
When a navigator sights the north star along the edge of the plate, the plumb
line falls across a measure of the star’s altitude above the earth. This
is close to the measure of latitude. (A simpler explanation—such as, it
measures latitude using the north star—is acceptable)
30) Draw a simple sketch
of a Weatherglass and explain how it works. (2 points.)
Drawing
Explanation:
When atmospheric pressure
rises, the water moves up the spout to indicate that there is bad weather coming.
Guidelines for Writing True/False Items
1. Write clear, concise,
unambiguous statements
2. Avoid words like “always, never, all, sometimes, none, could, and might.”
3. Include more false items than true (students tend to guess “true”).
4. Make sure each item has only one main idea.
5. Avoid testing insignificant learning outcomes.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Can be used to see if students are “tripped up” by popular misconceptions.
It is difficult to write significant statements that are absolutely or unambiguously
true or false.
A large amount of content can be tested quickly.
It is difficult to measure significant learning outcomes.
Simple to write.
Students have a 50—50 chance of guessing the correct answer.
Simple to score.
Answers tell us very little about what the students know or can do.
The Limitations of the True-False item are so serious that it seems wise to
use this item type only when other items are inappropriate for measuring the
desired learning outcomes.
—N. E. Gronlund
Guidelines for Writing Fill-in-the-Blank/Short Answer Items
Written by Dr. Richard Sudweeks
1. Word the problem so that a clear, meaningful problem is presented.
2. Structure the question so that the range of acceptable responses is limited
to a single correct answer or a narrow set of definite, clear-cut and explicit
answers.
3. Use direct questions rather than incomplete sentences.
4. Focus on eliciting key words or ideas only.
5. Try not to use statements taken directly from textbooks, reference materials,
or other documents with one or two words omitted.
6. Avoid using excessive blanks in any single item.
7. Avoid providing extraneous clues.
8. When using computational problems, specify the units and degree of precision
that should be used in expressing the answer.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Simple to write.
Tend to be used for factual recall.
Difficult for student to guess.
Takes longer to score.
Student usually study harder because they know they must know the answer, rather
than simply recognize the answer.
Items are sometimes ambiguous and students may provide responses that are not
what you had intended, but which are defensible.
Example of Fill-in-the-Blank or Short Answer Items
Write the correct answer in the blank. (1 point each.)
1) Who was the Castillian Queen who helped to finance all four of Columbus’ voyages to the New World? _________________________ Queen Isabella
2) Who was the Portuguese Prince who established a school of navigation on the cliffs above the sea at Sagres?_________________________Prince Henry or Henry the Navigator
3) Who was the explorer for whom America was named? ____________________ Amerigo Vespucci
4) Who were the people that lived on the island of Guanahani, where Columbus first landed?_____________ The Taino
Guidelines for
Writing Matching Items
Adapted from guidelines written by Dr. Richard Sudweeks
Premises
Responses
___ This character spun a web that said “terrific.”
––– This character ate all night long at the fair.
___ This character was the runt of the litter.
A. Charlotte
C. Fern
B. Templeton
D. Wilber
1. Write clear instructions:
a. Explain how the premises and responses are related.
b. Describe how or where answers should be recorded.
2. Make responses short.
3. Provide an unequal number
of premises and responses. Be sure to let students know if responses can be
used more than once or if a response might not be used at all.
4. Use homogenous premises and responses (i.e., all response items are names
of historically significant women and all premise items are descriptions of
their accomplishments).
5. Provide a heading above each list.
6. Arrange responses in logical order (e.g., alphabetically, chronologically,
or numerically).
7. Keep all premises and responses on the same page to avoid confusion.
8. Make sure all responses are believable.
9. Do not use too many items (10 or less—fewer for lower grades.)
10. Make matching exercises interesting and fun.
Examples of Matching Items
Match each of the following events to the date that it occurred. Write the correct
date in the blank provided. Use each date once. There will be one unused date.
(1 point each.)
It might help you to arrange the events in the order that they happened before
you assign dates.
Historical Events
1) ______ Columbus set sail on his first journey across the “Sea of Darkness.”
2) ______ Gutenberg printed the first Bible.
3) ______ The Vikings first landed on the North American continent somewhere
near this date.
4) ______ 17-year-old Marco Polo joined his father and uncle on a journey east
to the Orient.
5) ______ The first crusaders left for Jerusalem.
Dates
1200 B.C.
1000 A.D.
1095 A.D.
1271 A.D.
1454 A.D.
1492 A.D.
Match each experience to the explorer it describes. Write the correct letter
in the blank provided. An explorer can be used once, more than once, or not
at all. (1 point each.)
Experiences
6) ___ His fleet of ships was blown off course and reached what is now Brazil.
He claimed it for Portugal. C
7) ___ He was drowned when his ship went down during a storm on the way to the
Cape of Good Hope. A
8) ___ He raided a Muslim passenger ship returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca,
then set it on fire. For the next four days, he fired on it repeatedly as it
burned and the passengers begged for mercy. B
9) ___ During his explorations to what he called “ “New World,”
he drew detailed maps and wrote about his adventures. D
10) ___ He was the first explorer to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. He
named it the “Cape of Storms.” A
11) ___ He was the first explorer to reach India by sailing around the African
continent. B
Explorers
A. Bartholomeau Dias
B. Vasco da Gama
C. Pedro Alvares Cabral
D. Amerigo Vespucci
Guidelines for Writing Multiple Choice Items
Written by Dr. Richard Sudweeks
1) Do not use multiple-choice
items in situations where other assessment procedures would be more appropriate.
2) Each item should focus on a single problem that is presented clearly and
completely.
3) All distracters should be plausible to examinees who are misinformed or less
knowledgeable, generally, this means that the alternatives should constitute
a homogenous set.
4) Items designed to assess understanding, problem solving ability or other
cognitive processes beyond the recall level must present a novel problem or
situation.
5) Recurring words or ideas expressed in the alternatives should be moved to
the stem.
6) All superfluous words or extraneous ideas should be excluded from the stem.
7) Word each option so that it clearly states one idea and only one idea.
8) State the stem in positive form. Avoid negatively stated items if possible.
9). Avoid including any extraneous clues to the correct answer.
a. Word each option so that it is grammatically consistent with the stem.
b. Avoid using overlapping options
c. Avoid including verbal associations between the stem and the correct answer.
d. Avoid making the correct answer consistently longer than the distracters.
e. Avoid using “all of the above” as an option.
f. Avoid using complex items
g. Randomly vary the location of the correct option so that positions A, B,
C, etc. Are used about the same number of times, but not in any systematic order.
10) Use “none of the above” as and option rarely, if at all.
11) Arrange the options in vertical, tabular format, rather than in horizontal
sequence.
12) After the test has been administered, carefully examine the pattern of responses
to each item. Revise distracters that are either nonfunctional or too attractive.
Why not use “All of the Above?”
1) If the student can see
that 2 options are correct, they can assume that all must be correct.
2) If the student can see that 1 option is incorrect, “all of the above”
can’t be true.
Why not use negative words in Multiple Choice Questions?
1) Negatively worded phrases can make it difficult for students to keep track of what is being asked, especially if negatives are used in both the stem and in the options.
Which of the following statements is not true:
A. Columbus did not name
America.
B. Columbus did not admit that he had found a New World.
C. Columbus never made it to the mainland of the American continent.
D. Columbus didn’t stay loyal to Queen Isabella.
Never, never, never use negatives in both the stem and the options!
2) Sometimes test-takers read the question and fail to see the “not.”
If you just can’t help yourself and you must use a negative (for example, if you have written a question that has several good answers, and you want to ask your students to choose which option is not true), then do the following:
Make sure that the negative word (such as “not”) can be easily seen. Underline, CAPITALIZE, use bold print, use italics, or any use any COMBINATION of the four.
Which of the following statements is NOT true:
A. Columb sailed to the
New World four times.
B. Columbus died believing that he had reached the East Indies.
C. Columbus eventually made it to the mainland of the American continent.
D. Columbus stayed loyal to Queen Isabella his entire life.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Multiple Choice Items
Adapted from the University of Minnesota office of Measurement Services
Advantages
Disadvantages
Multiple choice items can be used to measure a wide range of learning objectives,
from factual recall through problem solving and evaluation.
Multiple choice stems and distracters are difficult and time consuming to write.
Multiple choice items can measure a broad range of outcomes in a short period
of time.
There is a tendency to write items that assess only factual recall.
Multiple choice items can be scored quickly and easily.
Poor readers may have difficulty with multiple choice items.
Because multiple choice tests usually have a large number of items and because
scoring is not susceptible to bias, MC tests tend to be fairly reliable.
If multiple choice tests are not well written, students who are test-wise can
sometimes guess the answers.
Patterns of incorrect responses can provide diagnostic information about poor
items or deficiencies in instruction or in student understanding
Multiple choice items take longer to respond to than T/F and short answer/fill-in-the-blank
answers.
MC items are less susceptible to response sets (the tendency to answer “true”
for example).
Multiple choice items do not measure the ability to organize and express ideas.
Examples of Multiple Choice Items
For each multiple choice item, circle the letter next to the best option (1 point each)
1) What long-term impact
did Viking explorers have on United States history?
A. Most of the fair-haired, fair-skinned people in our country are descendants
of the Vikings.
B. The Vikings didn’t stay in North America long enough to have much of
an impact at all.
C. Most of our county’s myths and legends have their origins in Viking
(Norse) mythology.
2) Why did the crusades
spark an interest in Asian trading routes?
A. Crusaders wanted to get silks and spices from the East so that they could
buy Jerusalem back from the Muslims.
B. Crusaders became discouraged after trying, unsuccessfully, for years to win
back Jerusalem, so they decided to try to conquer the Orient instead.
C. Crusaders experienced silks and spices for the first time and wanted to find
a way to get these wonderful things for themselves.
3) In what way did Marco
Polo influence Christopher Columbus?
A. While he was in prison, Marco Polo shared his stories with Columbus and encouraged
him to find a sea route to the Orient.
B. After hearing tales of Marco Polo’s journey, Columbus became convinced
that the overland route to the Orient was too dangerous to attempt.
C. Because Columbus read Marco Polo’s account of his adventures in the
Orient, his desire to find a sea road to the Orient was strengthened.
4) Why did Prince Henry
become involved in the African slave trade?
A) His experience conquering the Moorish (Muslim) city of Cueta had left him
with a deep seated hatred for the African people.
B) He was beginning to lose financial support for his exploration and slaves
brought new revenue (money) to Portugal that helped justify his expenses.
C) He was deeply committed to bringing souls to Christ and he believed that
the only way to save these heathens was to baptize them and force them to live
among Christians.
5) Why did Columbus sail
west across the ocean rather than around the tip of Africa to get to India?
A. Columbus did not believe that there was a sea route around Africa that reached
the Indies.
B. Columbus believed the Atlantic route would be easier and shorter than going
around Africa.
C. Many explorers had died trying to make it around the Cape of Good Hope and
Columbus was afraid to try that route.
Guidelines for Writing Essay Questions
Adapted from guidelines written by the University of Pittsburgh Faculty Development
Services
1) Use essay questions
to test higher-order thinking skills that can’t be measured with T/F,
short answer, or multiple choice questions.
2) Write the question so that the task is clearly defined for the students.
• How long of an answer do you expect?
• Will writing and spelling skills be assessed?
• How many major points do you expect the student to touch on?
3) To avoid using an essay item as a means to simply recall class or textbook
information, try using novel materials or situations and asking your students
to apply what they know. For example, in our class, I might present a behavioral
problem and ask you to use your understanding of motivational, behavioral and
developmental theories to address the problem.
4) If the essay response could be controversial, inform students that their
score will be based on how logical and well-supported their answer is, rather
on which position they take.
5) Make sure the question is developmentally appropriate and easy to understand.
You wouldn’t ask a third-grader to analyze the conflict between good and
evil in Star Wars.
6) Make sure students know how much an essay item is worth so that they can
plan their time accordingly.
7) If you use any sort of “grading-on-the-curve” system in your
class, all students should be required to answer the same question.
(Some assessment experts argue that you should never provide optional essay
questions, because this allows students to find the topic they are most familiar
with and avoid topics they do not know about. I would argue that this depends
on your teaching philosophy. If one of your primary objectives is for your students
to become independent thinkers and researchers who make choices about the material
they study and learn, it makes a great deal of sense to provide them with optional
essay questions.)
8) If you intend to assign scores based on very specific content criteria, you
need to be explicit about the information or ideas you want included in the
essay. Please keep in mind, however, that if you are looking for a series of
specific responses, you might be better off using short essay or multiple choice
items. An essay item should leave some room for creativity and independent thought.
9) Develop a model answer and scoring criteria.
10) Analyze student responses carefully to see how they have interpreted the
question. If they have fairly consistently answered in ways that you had not
intended, you need to adjust the scores accordingly and revise the item before
you use it again.
How to Avoid Scoring Bias
Research has shown that it is very difficult to score essay responses fairly.
Inter-rater reliability is almost always low when three or four people are asked
to score the same essay. Intra-rater reliability is low when the same teacher
is asked to score an essay on several different occasions. It is important to
keep this in mind when you are constructing tests so that essay responses are
not weighted so heavily that they make or break a final grade. In the meantime,
the following guidelines can help you to score essays more consistently and
objectively:
• Try not to be biased
by the quality of the writing (unless that is one of your criteria). A student
who writes well often gets better scores on essay exams, even when she doesn’t
know the material as well as other students.
• Score anonymously so that you are not influenced by your opinion of
a student’s capabilities.
• Use a model answer to make certain that student have addressed the major
issues or ideas you asked them to address.
• Periodically review responses you scored earlier to see if you are being
consistent in your scoring criteria.
• If possible, invite a second reader to score the essays (as long as
she is provided with the learning objective, the scoring criteria and a model
answer.
• If you become tired while reading, stop and begin again when you are
fresh.
• Provide plenty of feedback so that students will understand their score
and can make improvements.
Levels of Specificity
How might you expect a student to answer each of the following questions?
1) What do you think of
Christopher Columbus?
2) Do you believe Christopher Columbus was a good man?
3) Do you believe Christopher Columbus was a good man? Why or why not?
4) Do you believe Christopher Columbus was a good man? Why or why not? Consider
his role as sea captain, a governor, a religious man, and a family man.
5) Do you believe Christopher Columbus was a good man, a bad man, or that he
had characteristics of both? Using specific examples from his life, describe
his behavior and explain why that behavior makes you believe the way you do
about him. Provide at least one example from each of the following roles he
played in life:
sea captain
governor
religious man
family man
There is no right answer, but you must support your ideas with valid examples. Use complete sentences and write at least two paragraphs. You will be graded on the quality of your thought, rather than the quality of your spelling or handwriting, but try your best to make your answer easy to read. You should spend about 20 to 30 minutes on this question. You might want to outline your answer first on scratch paper. (Worth 7 points)
Never play “Guess
what I’m thinking?” with your students.
Examples of Short Essay Questions
Answer each of the following questions using 2 or 3 complete sentences. Make sure you read each question carefully and provide a complete answer.
1) What was the Gutenberg Press and how did it change the lives of common people? (2 points.)
Full credit for part 2
if the student mentions any one of the following ideas.:
1) People had access to the Bible for the first time and no longer had to rely
on the church’s interpretation of the Bible.
2) Because people could read about faraway places and people for the first time,
they became more curious about their world.
3) Because reading material became more available, more people learned to read.
4) Common people could afford to own books for the first time.
2) Was the Line of Demarcation a fair solution to a world-wide problem? Why or Why not? (2 points.)
Full credit if the student
answers that it was NOT a fair solution and gives one of the following reasons:
1) The rulers of Portugal and Spain did not consider any other country when
they decided to divide the entire unknown world between their two countries.
2) The treaty made no provision for the event that an explorer from another
country might have a right to claim newfound land.
3) The treaty did not consider the fact that the inhabitants of newfound lands
might have some claim to that land.
3) Give at least 3 reasons Columbus wanted to find a western sea route to the Indies. (3 points).
Full credit for any three
of the following reasons:
For the fame it would bring to him.
To convert the people of the Indies to Christianity.
So that revenues from the journey could be used to help recover Jerusalem from
the Muslims.
To seek the Grand Khan
To find great riches.
To prove that it could be done.
4) A growing number of U.S. citizens argue that we should not honor Columbus by celebrating Columbus Day. Why do they feel this way? Do you agree? Why or why not? (3 points)
1 point for recognizing
that Columbus is controversial because his entry into the New World marked the
beginning of the decimation of the Taino and other indigenous peoples.
2 points for expressing an opinion that is adequately defended.
Example of an Essay Question
Read the following
question carefully, then write your response on the remainder of this page.
(Worth 7 points. Approximate time: 20—30 minutes.)
5) Do you believe Christopher
Columbus was a good man, a bad man, or that he had characteristics of both?
Using specific examples from his life, describe his behavior and explain why
that behavior makes you believe the way you do about him. Provide at least one
example from each of the following roles he played in life:
• sea captain
• governor
• religious man
• family man
There is no right answer, but you must support your ideas with valid examples.
Use complete sentences and write at least two paragraphs. You will be graded
on the quality of your thought, rather than the quality of your spelling or
handwriting, but try your best to make your answer easy to read. You might want
to outline your answer first on scratch paper.
Express opinion: I point.
Describe behaviors: 2 points. Use valid examples: 4 points.
Deduct one point for chronically incomplete sentences.
I want to be lenient on this particular question, because “good”
and “bad” are such a subjective terms and because we will have been
arguing both sides of the issue in class. This question is primarily for my
own benefit. I want to know if the students are learning to understand the complex
motives, values and beliefs that underlie human behavior.
Because we will have read and watched great deal about Columbus, the students
should have dozens of examples to draw from For that reason, I can’t be
specific about which examples are acceptable. Following is a sample of what
they could possibly use:
Columbus was an incredible seaman who planned meticulously and provided well
for his crew.
OR . . .
Columbus was selfish. He claimed the reward for sighting land first, even though
he should have given it to the ship’s watchman. He claimed all of the
glory for himself when he returned to Spain.
Columbus married for status, then left his son with Monks when his wife died.
And he wouldn’t marry Beatrice, the mother of his second son, Ferdinand.
OR . . .
Columbus took his illegitimate son, Ferdinand with him on his third voyage,
and he always provided well for Diego and Beatrice.